# Nobel_Prizes

Area: chemistry
Name: Jacobus H. van 't Hoff
Description:
in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions


Area: literature
Name: Sully Prudhomme
Description:
in special recognition of his poetic composition, which gives evidence of lofty idealism, artistic perfection and a rare combination of the qualities of both heart and intellect


Area: medicine
Name: Emil von Behring
Description:
for his work on serum therapy, especially its application against diphtheria, by which he has opened a new road in the domain of medical science and thereby placed in the hands of the physician a victorious weapon against illness and deaths


Area: physics
Name: Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen
Description:
in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently named after him


Area: chemistry
Name: Emil Fischer
Description:
in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his work on sugar and purine syntheses


Area: literature
Name: Theodor Mommsen
Description:
the greatest living master of the art of historical writing, with special reference to his monumental work, A history of Rome


Area: medicine
Name: Ronald Ross
Description:
for his work on malaria, by which he has shown how it enters the organism and thereby has laid the foundation for successful research on this disease and methods of combating it


Area: physics
Name: Hendrik A. Lorentz
Description:
in recognition of the extraordinary service they rendered by their researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena


Area: chemistry
Name: Svante Arrhenius
Description:
in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered to the advancement of chemistry by his electrolytic theory of dissociation


Area: literature
Name: Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson
Description:
as a tribute to his noble, magnificent and versatile poetry, which has always been distinguished by both the freshness of its inspiration and the rare purity of its spirit


Area: medicine
Name: Niels Ryberg Finsen
Description:
in recognition of his contribution to the treatment of diseases, especially lupus vulgaris, with concentrated light radiation, whereby he has opened a new avenue for medical science


Area: chemistry
Name: Sir William Ramsay
Description:
in recognition of his services in the discovery of the inert gaseous elements in air, and his determination of their place in the periodic system


Area: medicine
Name: Ivan Pavlov
Description:
in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged


Area: physics
Name: Lord Rayleigh
Description:
for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies


Area: chemistry
Name: Adolf von Baeyer
Description:
in recognition of his services in the advancement of organic chemistry and the chemical industry, through his work on organic dyes and hydroaromatic compounds


Area: chemistry
Name: Henri Moissan
Description:
in recognition of the great services rendered by him in his investigation and isolation of the element fluorine, and for the adoption in the service of science of the electric furnace called after him


Area: literature
Name: Giosuè Carducci
Description:
not only in consideration of his deep learning and critical research, but above all as a tribute to the creative energy, freshness of style, and lyrical force which characterize his poetic masterpieces


Area: physics
Name: J.J. Thomson
Description:
in recognition of the great merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases


Area: literature
Name: Rudyard Kipling
Description:
in consideration of the power of observation, originality of imagination, virility of ideas and remarkable talent for narration which characterize the creations of this world-famous author


Area: physics
Name: Albert A. Michelson
Description:
for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid


Area: chemistry
Name: Ernest Rutherford
Description:
for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances


Area: literature
Name: Rudolf Eucken
Description:
in recognition of his earnest search for truth, his penetrating power of thought, his wide range of vision, and the warmth and strength in presentation with which in his numerous works he has vindicated and developed an idealistic philosophy of life


Area: chemistry
Name: Wilhelm Ostwald
Description:
in recognition of his work on catalysis and for his investigations into the fundamental principles governing chemical equilibria and rates of reaction


Area: literature
Name: Selma Lagerlöf
Description:
in appreciation of the lofty idealism, vivid imagination and spiritual perception that characterize her writings


Area: chemistry
Name: Otto Wallach
Description:
in recognition of his services to organic chemistry and the chemical industry by his pioneer work in the field of alicyclic compounds


Area: literature
Name: Paul Heyse
Description:
as a tribute to the consummate artistry, permeated with idealism, which he has demonstrated during his long productive career as a lyric poet, dramatist, novelist and writer of world-renowned short stories


Area: medicine
Name: Albrecht Kossel
Description:
in recognition of the contributions to our knowledge of cell chemistry made through his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances


Area: chemistry
Name: Marie Curie
Description:
in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element


Area: literature
Name: Maurice Maeterlinck
Description:
in appreciation of his many-sided literary activities, and especially of his dramatic works, which are distinguished by a wealth of imagination and by a poetic fancy, which reveals, sometimes in the guise of a fairy tale, a deep inspiration, while in a mysterious way they appeal to the readers' own feelings and stimulate their imaginations


Area: literature
Name: Gerhart Hauptmann
Description:
primarily in recognition of his fruitful, varied and outstanding production in the realm of dramatic art


Area: physics
Name: Gustaf Dalén
Description:
for his invention of automatic regulators for use in conjunction with gas accumulators for illuminating lighthouses and buoys


Area: chemistry
Name: Alfred Werner
Description:
in recognition of his work on the linkage of atoms in molecules by which he has thrown new light on earlier investigations and opened up new fields of research especially in inorganic chemistry


Area: literature
Name: Rabindranath Tagore
Description:
because of his profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse, by which, with consummate skill, he has made his poetic thought, expressed in his own English words, a part of the literature of the West


Area: physics
Name: Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
Description:
for his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid helium


Area: chemistry
Name: Theodore W. Richards
Description:
in recognition of his accurate determinations of the atomic weight of a large number of chemical elements


Area: literature
Name: Romain Rolland
Description:
as a tribute to the lofty idealism of his literary production and to the sympathy and love of truth with which he has described different types of human beings


Area: physics
Name: Max Planck
Description:
in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta


Area: physics
Name: Johannes Stark
Description:
for his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields


Area: physics
Name: Charles Edouard Guillaume
Description:
in recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys


Area: chemistry
Name: Frederick Soddy
Description:
for his contributions to our knowledge of the chemistry of radioactive substances, and his investigations into the origin and nature of isotopes


Area: literature
Name: Anatole France
Description:
in recognition of his brilliant literary achievements, characterized as they are by a nobility of style, a profound human sympathy, grace, and a true Gallic temperament


Area: physics
Name: Albert Einstein
Description:
for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect


Area: chemistry
Name: Francis W. Aston
Description:
for his discovery, by means of his mass spectrograph, of isotopes, in a large number of non-radioactive elements, and for his enunciation of the whole-number rule


Area: physics
Name: Niels Bohr
Description:
for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them


Area: literature
Name: William Butler Yeats
Description:
for his always inspired poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation


Area: chemistry
Name: Richard Zsigmondy
Description:
for his demonstration of the heterogenous nature of colloid solutions and for the methods he used, which have since become fundamental in modern colloid chemistry


Area: literature
Name: George Bernard Shaw
Description:
for his work which is marked by both idealism and humanity, its stimulating satire often being infused with a singular poetic beauty


Area: literature
Name: Grazia Deledda
Description:
for her idealistically inspired writings which with plastic clarity picture the life on her native island and with depth and sympathy deal with human problems in general


Area: physics
Name: Jean Baptiste Perrin
Description:
for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter, and especially for his discovery of sedimentation equilibrium


Area: literature
Name: Henri Bergson
Description:
in recognition of his rich and vitalizing ideas and the brillant skill with which they have been presented


Area: medicine
Name: Julius Wagner-Jauregg
Description:
for his discovery of the therapeutic value of malaria inoculation in the treatment of dementia paralytica


Area: chemistry
Name: Adolf Windaus
Description:
for the services rendered through his research into the constitution of the sterols and their connection with the vitamins


Area: physics
Name: Owen Willans Richardson
Description:
for his work on the thermionic phenomenon and especially for the discovery of the law named after him


Area: literature
Name: Thomas Mann
Description:
principally for his great novel, Buddenbrooks, which has won steadily increased recognition as one of the classic works of contemporary literature


Area: chemistry
Name: Hans Fischer
Description:
for his researches into the constitution of haemin and chlorophyll and especially for his synthesis of haemin


Area: literature
Name: Sinclair Lewis
Description:
for his vigorous and graphic art of description and his ability to create, with wit and humour, new types of characters


Area: chemistry
Name: Friedrich Bergius
Description:
in recognition of their contributions to the invention and development of chemical high pressure methods


Area: physics
Name: Werner Heisenberg
Description:
for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen


Area: literature
Name: Ivan Bunin
Description:
for the strict artistry with which he has carried on the classical Russian traditions in prose writing


Area: chemistry
Name: Peter Debye
Description:
for his contributions to our knowledge of molecular structure through his investigations on dipole moments and on the diffraction of X-rays and electrons in gases


Area: literature
Name: Eugene O'Neill
Description:
for the power, honesty and deep-felt emotions of his dramatic works, which embody an original concept of tragedy


Area: literature
Name: Roger Martin du Gard
Description:
for the artistic power and truth with which he has depicted human conflict as well as some fundamental aspects of contemporary life in his novel-cycle Les Thibault


Area: medicine
Name: Albert Szent-Györgyi
Description:
for his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion processes, with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid


Area: literature
Name: Pearl Buck
Description:
for her rich and truly epic descriptions of peasant life in China and for her biographical masterpieces


Area: medicine
Name: Corneille Heymans
Description:
for the discovery of the role played by the sinus and aortic mechanisms in the regulation of respiration


Area: physics
Name: Enrico Fermi
Description:
for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons


Area: literature
Name: Frans Eemil Sillanpää
Description:
for his deep understanding of his country's peasantry and the exquisite art with which he has portrayed their way of life and their relationship with Nature


Area: physics
Name: Ernest Lawrence
Description:
for the invention and development of the cyclotron and for results obtained with it, especially with regard to artificial radioactive elements


Area: physics
Name: Otto Stern
Description:
for his contribution to the development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton


Area: literature
Name: Johannes V. Jensen
Description:
for the rare strength and fertility of his poetic imagination with which is combined an intellectual curiosity of wide scope and a bold, freshly creative style


Area: chemistry
Name: Artturi Virtanen
Description:
for his research and inventions in agricultural and nutrition chemistry, especially for his fodder preservation method


Area: literature
Name: Gabriela Mistral
Description:
for her lyric poetry which, inspired by powerful emotions, has made her name a symbol of the idealistic aspirations of the entire Latin American world


Area: literature
Name: Hermann Hesse
Description:
for his inspired writings which, while growing in boldness and penetration, exemplify the classical humanitarian ideals and high qualities of style


Area: physics
Name: Percy W. Bridgman
Description:
for the invention of an apparatus to produce extremely high pressures, and for the discoveries he made therewith in the field of high pressure physics


Area: literature
Name: André Gide
Description:
for his comprehensive and artistically significant writings, in which human problems and conditions have been presented with a fearless love of truth and keen psychological insight


Area: physics
Name: Edward V. Appleton
Description:
for his investigations of the physics of the upper atmosphere especially for the discovery of the so-called Appleton layer


Area: chemistry
Name: Arne Tiselius
Description:
for his research on electrophoresis and adsorption analysis, especially for his discoveries concerning the complex nature of the serum proteins


Area: physics
Name: Patrick M.S. Blackett
Description:
for his development of the Wilson cloud chamber method, and his discoveries therewith in the fields of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation


Area: chemistry
Name: William F. Giauque
Description:
for his contributions in the field of chemical thermodynamics, particularly concerning the behaviour of substances at extremely low temperatures


Area: literature
Name: Bertrand Russell
Description:
in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought


Area: medicine
Name: Philip S. Hench
Description:
for their discoveries relating to the hormones of the adrenal cortex, their structure and biological effects


Area: physics
Name: Cecil Powell
Description:
for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method


Area: literature
Name: Pär Lagerkvist
Description:
for the artistic vigour and true independence of mind with which he endeavours in his poetry to find answers to the eternal questions confronting mankind


Area: physics
Name: John Cockcroft
Description:
for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles


Area: literature
Name: François Mauriac
Description:
for the deep spiritual insight and the artistic intensity with which he has in his novels penetrated the drama of human life


Area: physics
Name: Felix Bloch
Description:
for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith


Area: literature
Name: Winston Churchill
Description:
for his mastery of historical and biographical description as well as for brilliant oratory in defending exalted human values


Area: physics
Name: Frits Zernike
Description:
for his demonstration of the phase contrast method, especially for his invention of the phase contrast microscope


Area: chemistry
Name: Linus Pauling
Description:
for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances


Area: literature
Name: Ernest Hemingway
Description:
for his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently demonstrated in The Old Man and the Sea, and for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary style


Area: medicine
Name: John F. Enders
Description:
for their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue


Area: chemistry
Name: Vincent du Vigneaud
Description:
for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone


Area: literature
Name: Juan Ramón Jiménez
Description:
for his lyrical poetry, which in Spanish language constitutes an example of high spirit and artistical purity


Area: medicine
Name: André F. Cournand
Description:
for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system


Area: literature
Name: Albert Camus
Description:
for his important literary production, which with clear-sighted earnestness illuminates the problems of the human conscience in our times


Area: medicine
Name: Daniel Bovet
Description:
for his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles


Area: physics
Name: Tsung-Dao Lee
Description:
for their penetrating investigation of the so-called parity laws which has led to important discoveries regarding the elementary particles


Area: literature
Name: Boris Pasternak
Description:
for his important achievement both in contemporary lyrical poetry and in the field of the great Russian epic tradition


Area: literature
Name: Salvatore Quasimodo
Description:
for his lyrical poetry, which with classical fire expresses the tragic experience of life in our own times


Area: medicine
Name: Arthur Kornberg
Description:
for their discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid


Area: chemistry
Name: Willard F. Libby
Description:
for his method to use carbon-14 for age determination in archaeology, geology, geophysics, and other branches of science


Area: literature
Name: Saint-John Perse
Description:
for the soaring flight and the evocative imagery of his poetry which in a visionary fashion reflects the conditions of our time


Area: literature
Name: Ivo Andric
Description:
for the epic force with which he has traced themes and depicted human destinies drawn from the history of his country


Area: literature
Name: John Steinbeck
Description:
for his realistic and imaginative writings, combining as they do sympathetic humour and keen social perception


Area: medicine
Name: Francis Crick
Description:
for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material


Area: medicine
Name: Sir John Eccles
Description:
for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane


Area: literature
Name: Jean-Paul Sartre
Description:
for his work which, rich in ideas and filled with the spirit of freedom and the quest for truth, has exerted a far-reaching influence on our age


Area: medicine
Name: Konrad Bloch
Description:
for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism


Area: physics
Name: Nicolay G. Basov
Description:
for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle


Area: literature
Name: Mikhail Sholokhov
Description:
for the artistic power and integrity with which, in his epic of the Don, he has given expression to a historic phase in the life of the Russian people


Area: physics
Name: Richard P. Feynman
Description:
for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles


Area: chemistry
Name: Robert S. Mulliken
Description:
for his fundamental work concerning chemical bonds and the electronic structure of molecules by the molecular orbital method


Area: chemistry
Name: Manfred Eigen
Description:
for their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by disturbing the equlibrium by means of very short pulses of energy


Area: literature
Name: Miguel Angel Asturias
Description:
for his vivid literary achievement, deep-rooted in the national traits and traditions of Indian peoples of Latin America


Area: physics
Name: Hans Bethe
Description:
for his contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars


Area: chemistry
Name: Lars Onsager
Description:
for the discovery of the reciprocal relations bearing his name, which are fundamental for the thermodynamics of irreversible processes


Area: physics
Name: Luis Alvarez
Description:
for his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics, in particular the discovery of a large number of resonance states, made possible through his development of the technique of using hydrogen bubble chamber and data analysis


Area: chemistry
Name: Derek Barton
Description:
for their contributions to the development of the concept of conformation and its application in chemistry


Area: literature
Name: Samuel Beckett
Description:
for his writing, which - in new forms for the novel and drama - in the destitution of modern man acquires its elevation


Area: physics
Name: Murray Gell-Mann
Description:
for his contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions


Area: economics
Name: Paul A. Samuelson
Description:
for the scientific work through which he has developed static and dynamic economic theory and actively contributed to raising the level of analysis in economic science


Area: medicine
Name: Julius Axelrod
Description:
for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation


Area: chemistry
Name: Gerhard Herzberg
Description:
for his contributions to the knowledge of electronic structure and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals


Area: economics
Name: Simon Kuznets
Description:
for his empirically founded interpretation of economic growth which has led to new and deepened insight into the economic and social structure and process of development


Area: literature
Name: Pablo Neruda
Description:
for a poetry that with the action of an elemental force brings alive a continent's destiny and dreams


Area: literature
Name: Heinrich Böll
Description:
for his writing which through its combination of a broad perspective on his time and a sensitive skill in characterization has contributed to a renewal of German literature


Area: chemistry
Name: Ernst Otto Fischer
Description:
for their pioneering work, performed independently, on the chemistry of the organometallic, so called sandwich compounds


Area: economics
Name: Wassily Leontief
Description:
for the development of the input-output method and for its application to important economic problems


Area: medicine
Name: Konrad Lorenz
Description:
for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns


Area: chemistry
Name: Paul J. Flory
Description:
for his fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of the macromolecules


Area: economics
Name: Gunnar Myrdal
Description:
for their pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and for their penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena


Area: physics
Name: Antony Hewish
Description:
for their pioneering research in radio astrophysics: Ryle for his observations and inventions, in particular of the aperture synthesis technique, and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars


Area: literature
Name: Eugenio Montale
Description:
for his distinctive poetry which, with great artistic sensitivity, has interpreted human values under the sign of an outlook on life with no illusions


Area: medicine
Name: David Baltimore
Description:
for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell


Area: physics
Name: Aage N. Bohr
Description:
for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection


Area: economics
Name: Milton Friedman
Description:
for his achievements in the fields of consumption analysis, monetary history and theory and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilization policy


Area: literature
Name: Saul Bellow
Description:
for the human understanding and subtle analysis of contemporary culture that are combined in his work


Area: medicine
Name: Baruch S. Blumberg
Description:
for their discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases


Area: chemistry
Name: Ilya Prigogine
Description:
for his contributions to non-equilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory of dissipative structures


Area: economics
Name: James E. Meade
Description:
for their pathbreaking contribution to the theory of international trade and international capital movements


Area: literature
Name: Vicente Aleixandre
Description:
for a creative poetic writing which illuminates man's condition in the cosmos and in present-day society, at the same time representing the great renewal of the traditions of Spanish poetry beween the wars


Area: physics
Name: Philip W. Anderson
Description:
for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems


Area: chemistry
Name: Peter Mitchell
Description:
for his contribution to the understanding of biological energy transfer through the formulation of the chemiosmotic theory


Area: literature
Name: Isaac Bashevis Singer
Description:
for his impassioned narrative art which, with roots in a Polish-Jewish cultural tradition, brings universal human conditions to life


Area: chemistry
Name: Herbert C. Brown
Description:
for their development of the use of boron- and phosphorus-containing compounds, respectively, into important reagents in organic synthesis


Area: economics
Name: Sir Arthur Lewis
Description:
for their pioneering research into economic development research with particular consideration of the problems of developing countries


Area: literature
Name: Odysseus Elytis
Description:
for his poetry, which, against the background of Greek tradition, depicts with sensuous strength and intellectual clear-sightedness modern man's struggle for freedom and creativeness


Area: physics
Name: Sheldon Glashow
Description:
for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including, inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current


Area: economics
Name: Lawrence R. Klein
Description:
for the creation of econometric models and the application to the analysis of economic fluctuations and economic policies


Area: literature
Name: Czeslaw Milosz
Description:
who with uncompromising clear-sightedness voices man's exposed condition in a world of severe conflicts


Area: medicine
Name: Baruj Benacerraf
Description:
for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions


Area: economics
Name: James Tobin
Description:
for his analysis of financial markets and their relations to expenditure decisions, employment, production and prices


Area: chemistry
Name: Aaron Klug
Description:
for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes


Area: economics
Name: George J. Stigler
Description:
for his seminal studies of industrial structures, functioning of markets and causes and effects of public regulation


Area: literature
Name: Gabriel García Márquez
Description:
for his novels and short stories, in which the fantastic and the realistic are combined in a richly composed world of imagination, reflecting a continent's life and conflicts


Area: economics
Name: Gerard Debreu
Description:
for having incorporated new analytical methods into economic theory and for his rigorous reformulation of the theory of general equilibrium


Area: literature
Name: William Golding
Description:
for his novels which, with the perspicuity of realistic narrative art and the diversity and universality of myth, illuminate the human condition in the world of today


Area: economics
Name: Richard Stone
Description:
for having made fundamental contributions to the development of systems of national accounts and hence greatly improved the basis for empirical economic analysis


Area: literature
Name: Jaroslav Seifert
Description:
for his poetry which endowed with freshness, sensuality and rich inventiveness provides a liberating image of the indomitable spirit and versatility of man


Area: medicine
Name: Niels K. Jerne
Description:
for theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies


Area: physics
Name: Carlo Rubbia
Description:
for their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction


Area: chemistry
Name: Herbert A. Hauptman
Description:
for their outstanding achievements in the development of direct methods for the determination of crystal structures


Area: literature
Name: Claude Simon
Description:
who in his novel combines the poet's and the painter's creativeness with a deepened awareness of time in the depiction of the human condition


Area: economics
Name: James M. Buchanan Jr.
Description:
for his development of the contractual and constitutional bases for the theory of economic and political decision-making


Area: peace
Name: Oscar Arias Sánchez
Description:
for his work for peace in Central America, efforts which led to the accord signed in Guatemala on August 7 this year


Area: literature
Name: Naguib Mahfouz
Description:
who, through works rich in nuance - now clear-sightedly realistic, now evocatively ambiguous - has formed an Arabian narrative art that applies to all mankind


Area: physics
Name: Leon M. Lederman
Description:
for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino


Area: economics
Name: Trygve Haavelmo
Description:
for his clarification of the probability theory foundations of econometrics and his analyses of simultaneous economic structures


Area: literature
Name: Camilo José Cela
Description:
for a rich and intensive prose, which with restrained compassion forms a challenging vision of man's vulnerability


Area: literature
Name: Octavio Paz
Description:
for impassioned writing with wide horizons, characterized by sensuous intelligence and humanistic integrity


Area: peace
Name: Mikhail Gorbachev
Description:
for his leading role in the peace process which today characterizes important parts of the international community


Area: physics
Name: Jerome I. Friedman
Description:
for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics


Area: chemistry
Name: Richard R. Ernst
Description:
for his contributions to the development of the methodology of high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy


Area: economics
Name: Ronald H. Coase
Description:
for his discovery and clarification of the significance of transaction costs and property rights for the institutional structure and functioning of the economy


Area: literature
Name: Nadine Gordimer
Description:
who through her magnificent epic writing has - in the words of Alfred Nobel - been of very great benefit to humanity


Area: physics
Name: Pierre-Gilles de Gennes
Description:
for discovering that methods developed for studying order phenomena in simple systems can be generalized to more complex forms of matter, in particular to liquid crystals and polymers


Area: economics
Name: Gary S. Becker
Description:
for having extended the domain of microeconomic analysis to a wide range of human behaviour and interaction, including nonmarket behaviour


Area: literature
Name: Derek Walcott
Description:
for a poetic oeuvre of great luminosity, sustained by a historical vision, the outcome of a multicultural commitment


Area: medicine
Name: Edmond H. Fischer
Description:
for their discoveries concerning reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological regulatory mechanism


Area: peace
Name: Rigoberta Menchú Tum
Description:
in recognition of her work for social justice and ethno-cultural reconciliation based on respect for the rights of indigenous peoples


Area: physics
Name: Georges Charpak
Description:
for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber


Area: economics
Name: Robert W. Fogel
Description:
for having renewed research in economic history by applying economic theory and quantitative methods in order to explain economic and institutional change


Area: literature
Name: Toni Morrison
Description:
who in novels characterized by visionary force and poetic import, gives life to an essential aspect of American reality


Area: peace
Name: F.W. de Klerk
Description:
for their work for the peaceful termination of the apartheid regime, and for laying the foundations for a new democratic South Africa


Area: physics
Name: Russell A. Hulse
Description:
for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation


Area: literature
Name: Kenzaburo Oe
Description:
who with poetic force creates an imagined world, where life and myth condense to form a disconcerting picture of the human predicament today


Area: physics
Name: Bertram N. Brockhouse
Description:
for pioneering contributions to the development of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter


Area: chemistry
Name: Paul J. Crutzen
Description:
for their work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone


Area: economics
Name: Robert E. Lucas Jr.
Description:
for having developed and applied the hypothesis of rational expectations, and thereby having transformed macroeconomic analysis and deepened our understanding of economic policy


Area: peace
Name: Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
Description:
for their efforts to diminish the part played by nuclear arms in international politics and, in the longer run, to eliminate such arms


Area: economics
Name: James A. Mirrlees
Description:
for their fundamental contributions to the economic theory of incentives under asymmetric information


Area: literature
Name: Wislawa Szymborska
Description:
for poetry that with ironic precision allows the historical and biological context to come to light in fragments of human reality


Area: literature
Name: Dario Fo
Description:
who emulates the jesters of the Middle Ages in scourging authority and upholding the dignity of the downtrodden


Area: literature
Name: José Saramago
Description:
who with parables sustained by imagination, compassion and irony continually enables us once again to apprehend an elusory reality


Area: economics
Name: Robert A. Mundell
Description:
for his analysis of monetary and fiscal policy under different exchange rate regimes and his analysis of optimum currency areas


Area: medicine
Name: Günter Blobel
Description:
for the discovery that proteins have intrinsic signals that govern their transport and localization in the cell


Area: literature
Name: Gao Xingjian
Description:
for an œuvre of universal validity, bitter insights and linguistic ingenuity, which has opened new paths for the Chinese novel and drama


Area: peace
Name: Kim Dae-jung
Description:
for his work for democracy and human rights in South Korea and in East Asia in general, and for peace and reconciliation with North Korea in particular


Area: literature
Name: V.S. Naipaul
Description:
for having united perceptive narrative and incorruptible scrutiny in works that compel us to see the presence of suppressed histories


Area: physics
Name: Eric A. Cornell
Description:
for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates


Area: chemistry
Name: John B. Fenn
Description:
for the development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules


Area: literature
Name: Imre Kertész
Description:
for writing that upholds the fragile experience of the individual against the barbaric arbitrariness of history


Area: medicine
Name: Sydney Brenner
Description:
for their discoveries concerning 'genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death'


Area: peace
Name: Jimmy Carter
Description:
for his decades of untiring effort to find peaceful solutions to international conflicts, to advance democracy and human rights, and to promote economic and social development


Area: peace
Name: Shirin Ebadi
Description:
for her efforts for democracy and human rights. She has focused especially on the struggle for the rights of women and children.


Area: economics
Name: Finn E. Kydland
Description:
for their contributions to dynamic macroeconomics: the time consistency of economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles


Area: literature
Name: Elfriede Jelinek
Description:
for her musical flow of voices and counter-voices in novels and plays that with extraordinary linguistic zeal reveal the absurdity of society's clichés and their subjugating power


Area: literature
Name: Harold Pinter
Description:
who in his plays uncovers the precipice under everyday prattle and forces entry into oppression's closed rooms


Area: medicine
Name: Barry J. Marshall
Description:
for their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease


Area: peace
Name: International Atomic Energy Agency
Description:
for their efforts to prevent nuclear energy from being used for military purposes and to ensure that nuclear energy for peaceful purposes is used in the safest possible way


Area: literature
Name: Doris Lessing
Description:
that epicist of the female experience, who with scepticism, fire and visionary power has subjected a divided civilisation to scrutiny


Area: medicine
Name: Mario R. Capecchi
Description:
for their discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells


Area: peace
Name: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Description:
for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change


